Several ways...
1. Measure the relative density of the electrolyte.
2. Look for a current in the region of 1% of battery capacity whilst charging at around 14.4V.
3. Remove the surface charge (say by turning on the tunnel light for 10 or 15 mins) and measure the resting voltage.
4. Use a Smartgauge (but only truly accurate during discharge).
That’s why it’s always a compromise between time/cost/engine wear/battery life.
Nope, but it will limit it.
Some manufacturers supply tables or graphs which show number of cycles vs depth of discharge.
Simply consider them as a consumable and get on with your boating. Or, fixate on them, treat them carefully and probably get a longer life out of them. It’s all compromise. Charge them fast and hard and they’ll die of grid corrosion before they sulphate, don’t charge them fully enough often enough and they’ll die from Sulphation. As previously said, it’s all a compromise.
A decent Solar installation will result in a much longer life for your batteries. You can start the charge off with a bit of engine running then leave the solar to take care of the long, slow, boring bit. But it’s not a lot of use from November to March.